Volume 14

A) 2007 Race, Gender & Class Conference:  Hurricane Katrina  B) Race, Gender & Class as Organizing Principle

Volume 14, Number 1-2, 2007, ISSN 1082-8354

Guest Editors:  Jean Ait belkhir and Lenus Jack, Jr.

Jean Ait Belkhir and Lenus Jack, Jr.   Introduction.  2007 Race, Gender & Class Conference:  Hurricane Katrina   (p4-6)

Jerome Scott and Walda Katz-Fishman   America through the Eye of Hurricane Katrina - Capitalism at its "Best"  What Are we Prepared to Do?   (p7-16)

Abstract: This essay, written in the months immediately after the human-made disaster of Hurricanes Katrina and Rita devastated New Orleans and the Gulf Coast in 2005, contextualizes the destruction of human life, community, and environment in history, economy, power, and peoples’ struggles. The horrific destruction reflects the intentional abandonment and criminalization of the poor, working class, communities of color—African American, Indigenous, immigrant—especially women, children, elders, and environmental crisis over centuries. It teaches us two critical lessons. One, that the economic and political system of global capitalism, including the U.S. government at all levels, is broken and cannot be fixed. Two, that only a powerful bottom-up movement led by those most adversely affected can reconstruct New Orleans and the Gulf Coast around a transformative vision rooted in twenty-first century economic, political, and social realities that addresses their needs and hopes. The U.S. Social Forum, as part of a global movement building process, held in Atlanta June 27 to July 1, 2007 was an important moment in building movement and lifting up the voices, visions, and struggles of the people in New Orleans and the Gulf Coast.  Keywords: Hurricane Katrina; capitalism; exploitation; electronics; oppression; race; class; gender; militarism; privatization; movement building

Glenn S. Johnson and Shirley A. Rainey   Hurricane Katrina:  Public Health and Environmental Justice Issues Front and Centered   (p17-37)

Abstract: Hurricane Katrina is referred to as America’s worst national catastrophe or the greatest man-made disaster in history. It was a catastrophe in terms of loss of life, major structural damage and disaster-related morbidities. The infrastructure in the region was damaged which resulted in thousands of individuals lacking access to food, clean water, housing, and sanitation. The entire world was riveted and horrified as they watched on their televisions the poor and underserved black victims suffer from a devastating storm. Katrina exposed the world to the deteriorating infrastructure and systemic poverty of the Gulf Coast States. The federal government response to this disaster is that they are not doing enough and they are very slow. The environmental justice framework is used to analyze the public health issues surrounding Hurricane Katrina.  Key Words: public health; environmental justice; toxic environments

Quincy Thomas Stewart and Rashawn Ray   Hurricane Katrina and the Race Flood:  Interactive Lessons for Quantitative Research on Race   (p38-59)

Abstract: The catastrophe that affected the gulf coast region is the most significant domestic natural disaster in recent history. Although the initial response to this event was unsatisfactory to many, policymakers and relief organizations subsequently picked-up their efforts to alleviate the larger social and economic effects of Hurricane Katrina. For many scholars, the hurricane and the ensuing flood of New Orleans presents a unique environmental phenomenon that will structure the lives of gulf coast residents and other Americans for several decades. The Katrina phenomenon, however, mirrors a social catastrophe that has structured the lives of Americans for over three centuries—race. Just as the hurricane and ensuing flood penetrated the lives of New Orleans residents, the concept of race has permeated American social institutions such that racial classification shapes the breadth of individuals’ social interactions and life chances. Accordingly, the recent natural flood can be viewed as a physical microcosm of a larger social flood of how race structures the lives of all Americans. This article analyzes the parallels of these two floods to shed light on the processes that maintain and recreate social inequality, and to guide future research on racial outcome disparities among Gulf Coast residents and evacuees in particular, and U.S. residents in general.  Keywords: race; inequality; regression; quantitative methodology

Revathi I. Hines   Natural Disasters and Gender Inequalities:  The 2004 Tsunami and the Case of India   (p60-68)

Abstract: This research examines the link between gender and natural disasters. Specifically, it studies the 2004 Tsunami, that occurred in the Indian Ocean, and the inordinate impact it had on females in India. There are two fundamental gender issues that are examined in this paper: (a) The reasons why more women than men were impacted by the 2004 tsunami, and (b) The post-tsunami challenges that were faced by women. Through the research it is observed that following the tsunami, gender concerns were overlooked and social realities were ignored. As a result, women were marginalized in the process. The absence of any concrete gender analysis at the governmental level, indicates the nonchalant attitude toward gender concerns.  Keywords: tsunami; gender; India; natural disasters; disaster challenges; gender challenges

Ophera A. Davis and Marie Land   Southern Women Survivors Speak about Hurricane Katrina, the Children and the What Needs to Happen Next   (p69-86)

Abstract: This essay is a compilation of fifteen interviews with women ranging in age from 20 to 70. The women are from New Orleans, Gulfport and Biloxi. The women are African-American, Austrian born-Caucasian, Caucasian-American, and Jewish. The women were identified through agencies and alliances. The women were asked to participate in a study to offer their opinions and experiences as Gulf Coast states residents about Hurricane Katrina. Since women’s voices are sometimes overlooked or not heard, this essay will give the women a chance to speak frankly in their own voices.  Keywords: women; Hurricane Katrina; interviews; qualitative study; African American women

Diane C. Keithly   Surviving the Recovery:  The Role of Expectation and Belief in Rebuilding New Orleans   (p87-95)

Abstract: The subject of the recovery of New Orleans is discussed with the aim of broadening the perspective on the recovery effort by looking at the antecedents to the storm, in particular, land loss in Louisiana and examining historical examples at other natural disasters in the region. The discussion also includes the social impacts on the community and the role of Robert Merton’s concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy and W.I. Thomas’ definition of the situation in shaping the future of New Orleans. Perceptions influence beliefs and, ultimately, beliefs about the city’s future will partly determine its future.  Keywords: Katrina; New Orleans; disaster; recovery

Michael Radcliff   SUNO Family Vows to Fight the Systematic Destruction of the School and its Legacy   (p96-99)

Glenn S. Johnson and Shirley A. Rainey   Hurricane Katrina Impact on Three Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs):  Voices from Displaced Students   (p100-119)

Abstract: Hurricane Katrina not only destroyed the Gulf Coast States but devastated higher education for African Americans at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) in the region. Students, faculty, administrators, and staff at these institutions were displaced across the United States. This paper provides a HBCU student perspective of the hurricane and how many of them evacuated from the region. These students’ perspectives are placed in the environmental justice framework to provide not only an African American perspective of this horrific storm but a more comprehensive analysis of the impact of the storm environmentally, politically, socially, and economically. This paper also discusses lessons learned from this horrific storm and offers some recommendations to address the needs of the impacted universities.  Keywords: environmental disaster; displaced students; Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)

Jean Ait Belkhir and Christiane Charlemaine   Race, Gender and Class Lessons from Hurricane Katrina   (p120-152)

Abstract: In the public imagination, natural disasters do not discriminate, but are instead "equal opportunity" calamities. Hurricanes may not single out victims by their race, or gender or class but neither do such disasters occur in historical, political, social, or economic vacuums. Instead, the consequences of such catastrophes replicate and exacerbate the effects of extant inequalities, and often bring into stark relief the importance of political institutions, processes, ideologies, and norms. In the words of New York Times’ columnist David Brooks, storms like Hurricane Katrina "wash away the surface of society, the settled way things have been done. They expose the underlying power structures, the injustices, the patterns of corruption and the unacknowledged inequalities. The last two decades alone have provided a series of examples that demonstrate the vast inequalities of U.S. democratic system, particularly as they are manifested along racial, gender and class lines. A truly race, gender and class left would want to eliminate class inequality. But, in the race, gender and class trinity class is the odd factor. Mainstream race, gender and class social and academic activists want to get rid of race and gender inequality but "forget" class inequality.  Keywords:  Hurricane Katrina; race; gender; class; poverty; women of color

Jean Ait Belkhir and Christiane Charlemaine   Introduction:  Race, Gender & Class as Organizing Principle   (p153-156)

Aimee Van Wagenen   The Promise and Impossibility of Representing Anti-Essentialism:  Reading Bulworth Through Critical Race Theory   (p157-177)

Abstract: There is now little contest in the social sciences over rejecting racial essentialism in theory and analysis of race. There is, however, contest and confusion over what exactly it means to reject racial essentialism. Is it appropriate to define and employ racial groups as a category of analysis given that there is no scientific basis for racial categorization? Is racial identity meaningful and viable as a concept if a rejection of essentialism is where one begins analysis? Do we have any epistemological basis for persisting in using the terminology of "race" and "races"? The consequences for social analysis that stem from rejecting racial essentialism are as yet unclear. In this essay, I focus in particular on the consequences for representing racial subjectivity. I first review the scholarly consensus on rejecting racial essentialism and several theoretical alternatives proposed in the literature for representing an anti-essentialist racial subjectivity. I then consider the film Bulworth as a popular representation of an anti-essentialist racial subjectivity. I find promise and impossibility in both the theoretical and popular representations.  Keywords: critical race theory; essentialism; racial subjectivity; popular culture; film

Filomina Chioma Steady   The Black Woman and the Essentializing Imperative:  Implications for Theory and Praxis in the 21^st Century   (p178-195)

Abstract: This article analyses the achievements and essentializing imperatives and challenges still facing Black women in Africa and the African Diaspora. It argues that race is and continues to be an organizing principle in a global political economy that is both racialized and gendered. These results in four main types of essentialisms that continue to be maintained by hegemonic paradigms and ideologies: These are essentializing through corporate globalization; essentializing through stereotypes and the branding of Africa; essentializing through environmental injustices and environmental racism and essentializing through the social construction of disease. It maintains that essentializing and post-modernist frameworks are integrated and not mutually exclusive and should be interrogated together by activist academics.  Keywords:  Black women; African feminism; womanism; corporate; globalization; essentializing imperatives; environmental justice; HIV/AIDS; racialized and gendered global system; stereotypes; climate change; toxic colonialism; toxic terrorism; African women in politics; achievements of Black women

Adia Harvey Wingfield   The Modern Mammy and the Angry Black Man:  African American Professionals' Experiences with Gendered Racism in the Workplace   (p196-212)

Abstract: This paper explores the ways that Black professionals experience racism in the workplace as a gendered phenomenon. Drawing from in-depth interviews with 23 Black professional workers, I compare the ways that racism is gendered for Black men and for Black women. I also explore the ways that gendered racism constructs responses to racial affronts. I argue that exploring the gendered nature of racism offers a more precise assessment of how racism in the workplace impacts minorities.  Keywords:  gendered racism; Black professionals; controlling images

Amal Ibrahim Madibbo   Race, Gender, Language and Power Relations:  Blacks within Francophone Communities in Ontario, Canada   (p213-226)

Abstract: This paper examines how Antiracism and Black feminism enable us to conceptualize the situation of Blacks in the dynamics of power, namely, the distribution of economic and social resources within the Francophone communities in Canada. Black Francophones constitute a racial minority situated within the French-speaking official minority. This populace is discriminated against by the predominantly white and Anglophone State and by white Francophones. To conclude, Antiracism and Black feminism allow us to thoroughly analyze the power relations across race and gender relations. However, the specific case of Black Francophones as a double minority affirms that language should be integrated in the antiracist analysis to better understand the social reality of racial minorities that are located within linguistic minorities.  Keywords:  race, gender, language, power, equity, racial minorities, linguistic minorities, immigration, Canada

Shonda K. Lawrence, Desiree Stepteau-Watson, and Cynthia Honoré-Collins   An Exploratory Study:  Incarcerated Mothers with Daughters Involved in Child Welfare   (p227-235)

Abstract: This study explored outcomes for girls who experienced both maternal incarceration and child welfare system involvement. Incarcerated women with daughters between the ages of ten and seventeen participated. This secondary analysis of a cross-sectional survey offers information about mother-daughter contact and relationship, antisocial behavior, school performance and teen pregnancy. Increasing numbers of incarcerated mothers has serious implications for the well being of their children. Findings suggest that dual system involvement results in higher rates of antisocial and delinquent behavior, including carrying weapons, drug and alcohol use and violent physical behavior.  Keywords:  adolescent girls; child welfare; delinquency; maternal incarceration

Jacquelyn Mitchell and Rufus Sylvester Lynch   Re-Uniting Low-Income African American Fathers with their Children:  A Transdisciplinary Model to Address the Legal Conundrums Embedded in the Social Challenges   (p236-252)

Abstract: Stimulated by national policy and funding, attention to the issue of fatherhood is increasing. Fatherhood programs often focus on constructions of "responsibility" that mandate absent fathers to emotionally and/or financially support their children. However, the multifaceted legal conundrums embedded in the social barriers to "responsible" fatherhood that are faced by fragile and marginalized non-custodial fathers are rarely comprehensively addressed. These forensic barriers extend beyond criminal justice system issues, to consumer, traffic, housing and other issues that plague fragile populations. This article advances a transdisciplinary fatherhood programming model that emerged from monitoring data during implementation of a "responsibility"-based design. The original design was expanded to more effectively address imbedded legally-related impediments to re-uniting non-custodial fathers with their children. Practice, policy, and programming implications are explored.  Keywords:  fatherhood; non-custodial fathers; forensic barriers

Danielle Taana Smith and Kijana Crawford   Climbing the Ivory Tower:  Recommendations for Mentoring African American Women in Higher Education   (p253-265)

Abstract: The focus of this study is to determine the availability of mentors for African American female administrators who hold or have held senior-level administrative positions in higher education in New York State. We examine whether or not these African American female administrators were given the opportunity to work with mentors at their institutions. If they were not given this opportunity, we attempted to determine how they maintained their positions without the aid of mentoring, and how and if mentoring could have facilitated their career development. This study also examines how mentoring could have eased the strain felt by African American women in these high level positions.  Keywords:  African American women; mentoring; academic administration; higher education

Richard K. Caputo   Federal Taxation of Individual Capital & Labor Income in the United States, 1978-2003   (p266-280)

Abstract: Taxable income from dividends, capital gains, and wages & salaries in the United States are examined in light of the major tax reform efforts of the Reagan administration in 1986 and that of the G.W. Bush administration in 2001. Since affluent citizens are more likely to benefit from capital gains and dividends, questions are raised regarding the fair distribution of the tax burden between capital and labor.  Key Words:  tax fairness; income taxes; capital gains; dividends

Jas M. Sullivan and Ashraf Esmail   Black Social & Political Activism:  An Exploratory Study   (p281-298)

Abstract: While prior studies have often defined social activism as protesting or marching and political activism as voting, we define social and political activism with multiple measures. For each type of activism, we create an additive index that includes various social and political activities. In this research, we ask the following question: do black information networks, political involvement of church, and nationalist identity affect social activism and political activism of blacks? Using the 1993 Black Politics Study data, the results suggest that black information networks and church’s political involvement were strong predictors of both social and political activism; however, nationalist identity was not significant.  Keywords:  African-American; social and political activism

Megan Durell, Catherine Chiong, and Juan Battle   Race, Gender Expectations, and Homophobia:  A Quantitative Exploration   (p299-317)

Abstract: Using a convenience sample of New York City residents, this study explored the relationship between traditional gender role expectations and homophobic attitudes. Hierarchical regression modeling was employed for analyses. We found that (1) Blacks reported higher levels of homophobia than their White, Latina/o, and Asian counterparts; (2) among the variables considered, the traditional gender role expectations measure was the sole common significant predictor among all four racial groups; and (3) great discrepancies exist across racial groups in the relative importance of the demographic variables considered. Therefore, we concluded that a more nuanced understanding of homophobia, including its relationship with gender roles, needs to be investigated with strong attention to racial heterogeneity.  Keywords:  gender roles; homophobia; race

Julie Morton   Fighting War:  Essential Skills for Peace Education   (p318-332)

Abstract: In a world rife with conflict, our schools ought to provide students techniques for successful cooperation and problem-solving. To teach peace effectively, educators need to target dialogue, critical thinking, and creative planning skills consistently, so that students can practice productive ways of addressing turmoil and tension.  Keywords:  conflict transformation; conflict resolution; peace education; peace skills

Adele N. Norris, Yvette Murphy-Erby, and Anna Zajicek   An Intersectional Perspective in Introductory Sociology Textbooks and the Sociological Imagination:  A Case Study   (p333-344)

Abstract: A key role of sociology is to examine the interplay of history, individual biography and the broad patterns of social relations. An intersectional perspective developed by women of color, especially African-American women, to account for the complexity of people’s social locations is an integral component of the sociological imagination. Introduced to mainstream sociology in the 1990s, intersectionality perspective focuses on the interaction of class, race, gender, and age inequalities in shaping people’s experiences. In this paper, we examine whether a paradigm shift has occurred in mainstream sociology to incorporate an intersectional perspective. To address this question, we conducted a case study analyzing discussions of U.S. poverty in 15 most popular introductory sociology textbooks published between 2000 and 2007. We found that poverty is discussed in the context of racial/ethnic, gender, and age inequalities. Importantly, with a few exceptions, these inequalities are discussed separately, impeding the realization of the sociological imagination. We conclude by proposing a dialog between intersectionality perspective and mainstream sociology.  Keywords:  intersectionality; inequalities; sociology; poverty

Volume 13

A) Race, gender, and Class:  For What?  B) Current Examples of Intersectional Approaches

Volume 13, Number 3-4, 2006, ISSN 1082-8354

Guest Editors:  Vasilikie Demos and Anthony J. Lemelle, Jr.

Special Issue Managing Editor: Timothy Dowd

Vasilikie Demos and Anthony J. Lemelle, Jr.   Introduction:  Race, Gender, and Class for What?   (p4-15)

Heather Dillaway and Sarah Jane Brubaker   Intersectionality and Childbirth:  How Women from Different Social Locations Discuss Epidural Use   (16-41)

Abstract: Analyzing unpublished primary data from two separate qualitative studies, the authors employ an intersectionality framework to compare the experiences of two different samples of birthing women. Examining commonalities and differences in how women perceive and decide about epidurals in the hospital setting, the authors argue that feminist critiques of the medicalization of childbirth should be expanded to address race, class, and age as structures of oppression and privilege that shape women’s reproductive experiences. Findings are based on qualitative analyses of 19 interviews with predominantly White, middle- to upper-class women in a Mid-Atlantic state and 51 interviews with African American teens in a Southern state. Generally, Southern teens emphasized medical risks associated with the epidural and based decisions to forego the epidural on concerns about their wellbeing. Alternatively, Mid-Atlantic adults defined the epidural as a safe way to avoid the pain associated with childbirth and subsequently chose to use the epidural. The findings challenge many feminist critiques of medicalized childbirth, suggesting that conceptual approaches that focus only on gendered oppression and women in privileged locations fail to fully explain the birthing experiences of diverse groups of women. The authors conclude that understanding women’s perceptions of and decisions about epidurals (as well as other aspects of childbirth) is only possible if we pay attention to commonalities and differences among birthing women. This article is an exercise in how to move beyond gender and compare diverse women’s childbirth experiences.  Keywords:  childbirth; epidural; intersectionality; social location; race; class; age; qualitative research

Marla H. Kohlman   Intersection Theory:  A More Elucidating Paradigm of Quantitative Analysis   (p42-59)

Abstract: Intersection theory, a theoretical paradigm which calls attention to the interlocking forces of race, class, and gender, among other master status characteristics, is used to predict that respondents report having been targeted for sexual harassment under circumstances that are quite different from one demographic group to another. Sexual harassment is interpreted as primarily a power relation such that workers in less powerful positions are expected to be more vulnerable to targeting. This study may be distinguished from most studies utilizing intersection theory as a theoretical paradigm because it is a quantitative analysis of a broad, national set of data, the General Social Survey, rather than qualitative analyses or a meta-analyses of existing studies. It is predicted that the results reported in general additive models of sexual harassment mask the experiences of race, class, and gender as an interlocking force which differentially shapes the experiences of men and women in the labor market and society overall. The findings reported illustrate that these patterns vary substantially by race and gender, which provides firm support for the usefulness of intersection theory as a theoretical paradigm of analysis which should be more often utilized to shape the modeling of quantitative analyses.  Keywords:  intersectionality; theory; sexual harassment; race; gender; labor force

Tiffany Taylor and Barbara J. Risman   Doing Deference or Speaking Up:  Deconstructing the Experience and Expression of Anger   (p60-80)

Abstract: Most social scientists conceptualize anger as a negative emotion, a form of distress with negative consequences. In contrast, feminist activist writers often conceptualize anger as a potential source of oppositional consciousness and subsequent empowerment. This research project weaves together sociological theories of anger as a negative emotion, activists’ notions that anger among the oppressed is a source of energy for resistance, and add an intersectionality approach that suggests groups with different material and social standpoints will experience anger differently. Our findings suggest that racial and class statuses are important for how people feel and express anger. But, our findings also suggest, somewhat surprisingly, that gender does not, by itself or in interaction with other social statuses, affect the feeling or expression of anger. Gender, race and class disadvantage affect the experience or expression of anger in quite distinct ways. This supports the argument that different underlying social processes can shape gender, race, and class inequality.  Keywords:  emotions; anger; race; class; gender; intersectionality

Chong-suk-Han   Being an Oriental, I Could Never be Completely a Man:  Gay Asian Men and the Intersection of Race, Gender, Sexuality and Class   (p82-97)

Abstract: In recent years, scholars have noted the influence that race has played in the construction and maintenance of gender for men of color. In this paper, I examine how contemporary narratives continue to feminize Asian men and the consequences that this feminization has, specifically, on gay Asian men. In doing so, I examine contemporary narratives about Asian men to show how they are constructed and narratives created by gay Asian men to show how that gendered construction of race has a negative effect on their emotional and physical well-being.  Keywords:  race; sexuality; gender; class; gay Asian men

Suzanne Bouclin   Dancers Empowering (Some) Dancers:  The Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender in Organizing Erotic Laborers   (p98-129) 

Abstract: In this case study of an Ottawa-based erotic dancers' affiliation, the author centers the voices of informants while critically engaging with their discourses around, and approach to, crafting better working conditions. Informants reveal their experiences of economic exploitation, managerial control, and making compromises in light of the new industry practices. In response, they have organized to resist unfair labour conditions. Though the dancers' affiliation has created a space in which women can feel empowered and has been instrumental in crafting municipal by-laws regulating the industry, it overlooks other relationships of privilege that further complicate individual women's decision to engage in certain labour practices. Specifically, the author concludes that race, class and gender does matter in the context of organizing marginalized and stigmatized workers. Namely, women's location around varying axes of disadvantage may hinder their ability to make more meaningful choices within constraining work environments. Correspondingly it may temper the relevance of dancers’ affiliations to their everyday working lives.  Keywords:  marginal labour; intersectionality; feminist methodologies; sex work

Marcia Texler Segal and Theresa A. Martinez   Teaching from a Race, Gender, and Class Perspective:  A Dialogue about the Rationale, Rewards, and Challenges of Developing a Collection of Readings from Which to Teach   (p130-142)

Abstract: In the form of a dialogue between two sociologists from different ethnic and academic backgrounds and generations, developing an anthology for use in courses that employ an intersectional perspective, the authors discuss the reasons for teaching from this perspective. They recount how they came, personally and professionally, to understand the integration of race, gender, and class. Teaching from an RGC perspective is presented as both challenging and rewarding. The anthology was developed by drawing on readings successfully used in classes with the authors endeavoring to strike balances between quantitative and qualitative and between theoretical and imaginative pieces. The process is presented as collaborative and feminist.  Keywords:  intersectional; teaching; race; ethnicity; gender; class

Brian D. Polkinghorn and Thomas E. Boudreau   Bones of Contention:  Applying an Identity Affirmation Conflict Reduction Model to a Case Study of Repatriating of Ancestral Remains   (p143-161)

Abstract: There are many examples of violent intergroup conflict that have arisen out of specific situations or "flash points." However, once the "flash" subsides and the conflict continues there needs to be further exploration and refined explanation as to why the conflict has not abated even when the original reasons may have been adequately addressed. What residual forces can sustain a conflict and further drive escalatory dynamics? One plausible explanation is the propensity for individuals to cluster with similar others (members of their primary identity groups—race, gender, class, ethnicity etc.) in times of conflict in an effort to coalesce against a mutual adversary. Groups often then perpetuate the conflict by enforcing and maintaining hostile, dehumanized and objectified identity images of the "other" long past the original exchange. There are two assumptions being made in this article about many complex social conflict settings. First, sociological and social psychological mechanisms create in-group and out-group identity dynamics along with subsequent labels that are then played out within and between numerous identity groups. Second, variations in identity exist within and among these groups creating distinct forms of identity that during times of protracted conflict become more rigid. Together, these two assumptions ground part of the origins and proliferation of conflict in identity. The thesis of this article is that if identity can drive conflict and violence then it can be a factor in conflict and violence reduction. In particular this article argues that a conflict between groups can be lessened by the explicit identity affirmation by one group of the other group’s identity, including recognition of its past pain, defeats and collective losses, when appropriate. Using a case of conflict between an American Indian tribe and local law enforcement illustrates a new conflict reduction model consisting of: Leadership, Recognition, Validation and the Transparency of Future Time. This model is a variation of the ARIA model developed by Jay Rothman (1997) though it is quite different in content and application.  Keywords:  conflict transformation; identity affirmation; conflict de-escalation; conflict reduction; conflict model

Article added by RGC Editors

Michael D. Parsons and Maria Plakhotnic   Invisible to the Majority:  The Search for Critical Race Theory in the Higher Education and Policy Literature   (p162-175)

Abstract: This paper evaluates CRT’s impact on the higher education policy literature. The first section of the paper explains why it is important to consider the influence of CRT. This is followed by definition of CRT. The third section presents the methodology. The paper concludes with a discussion of the findings and implications.  Keywords:  critical race theory; higher education; public policy

Guest Editor:  Juan Battle

Jean Ait Belkhir and Christiane Charlemaine   Introduction:  Current Examples of Intersectional Approaches   (p176-179)

Juan Battle and Darla Linville   Race, Sexuality and Schools:  A Quantitative Assessment of Intersectionality   (p180-199)

Abstract: Many studies focus on the social problems of adolescents with same-sex attraction. Several variables have been found that impede their academic achievement for a variety of reasons, including poor attendance, physical or verbal harassment by students or teachers, and dropout. Little attention has been paid to non-heterosexual sexual attraction or behavior as a source of resilience and motivation for academic achievement. Situated in research about the "achievement gap" or "opportunity gap" between Black and White students and current research on the social and academic atmosphere in schools for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer or questioning students, this study analyzed data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health Wave I dataset. This study found that among students who do not have same-gender sexual attractions, race was a significant factor in predicting a decrease in positive school attitudes. However, among students with a same-gender sexual attraction, race ceases to be a factor in predicting positive school attitudes. For Black students, same-gender attraction may function as a protective factor against negative educational expectations.  Keywords: gay and lesbian; same-gender attracted; youth; schools; academic achievement; cultural capital; achievement gap; resilience; Black

Antonia Randolph   "Don't Hate Me Because I'm Beautiful":  Black Masculinity and Alternative Embodiment in Rap Music   (p200-217)

Abstract: This study examines the manifestation of subordinate men’s masculinity in popular culture by analyzing the construction of Black masculinity in rap music. The data for this research comes from a content analysis of lyrics from playa rap—a genre of rap music characterized by its focus on consumption, adornment, and sensual pleasure. Playa rap’s promotion of an alternative form of masculine embodiment points to the limitations of hegemonic masculinity as a lens for understanding subordinated men. Some argue that while playa rap may seem at first glance to endorse non-hegemonic modes of embodiment, others argue that its lyrics actually promote an embodiment that is in service of the hegemonic goals of controlling women and displaying capitalistic success. While playa modes of embodiment may ultimately have hegemonic goals in mind, the path they travel reveals the particular constraints Black men face when asserting male dominance. In other words, the research takes masculinity in rap as produced, not primordial.  Keywords:  Black masculinity; rap music; non-normative gender

Antonio Pastrana, Jr.   The Intersectional Imagination:  What Do Lesbian and Gay Leaders of Color Have To Do With It?   (p218-238)

Abstract: This paper examines the complexities of intersectional politics, how they have affected U.S.-based lesbian and gay (LG) social movement organizing, and how key people of color within this movement talk about the presence of secondary marginalization through the lens of race. In-depth interviews with four leaders of color within the LG movement were conducted in order to understand what the author calls the intersectional imagination—a form of analysis that attempts to make connections between individual- and group-level oppressions from a perspective that is embedded in the actual lived experience of oppression. Interview participants talked about the multifaceted nature of the "mainstream" and how it manifests itself in movement organizing. It can limit a movement’s goals, and it can be used to explore new ways of conducting the work of organizing. Similarly, discussions about leadership both encouraged participation in "mainstream" organizations and advanced a need for new models for thinking about what leadership means.  Keywords:  intersectionality; intersectional politics; LGBT social movements; secondary marginalization

Joe L. Lott, II.   Racial Identity and Black Students' Perceptions of Civic Skills   (p239-254)

Abstract: This research investigates the impact of racial identity on Black students’ perceptions of their civic skills. Even though 50 years ago they were one of the most active civic groups, Black students are a group whose civic participation has sharply declined between the 1970s and 1990s. The sample comprised 276 Black students who attended either a historically Black college/university (HBCU) or a predominantly White institution (PWI). Hierarchical regression analyses found that Immersion-Emersion and Internalization stages of the Black racial identity scale (B-RIAS) significantly explained Civic Skills. This study has implications for racial identity development and offers a more expansive theoretical framework about how to think about civic participation and Black students.  Keywords:  Black racial identity; Black college students; civic skills; citizenship

Michael A. Lewis and Eri Noguchi   The Female Corp of Volunteers:  How gender and Labor Supply Interact to Affect Civic Participation   (p255-267)

Abstract: Using nationally representative samples of female (N = 3,309) and male (N = 2,491) full and part-time workers from a survey conducted by the Saguaro Seminar at the John F. Kennedy School of Government, this research examines the interaction effect of gender and labor supply on civic participation, measured as number of times one has volunteered in community activities. Utilizing hierarchical multiple regression analysis, we found that a reduction in labor supply increases females’ civic participation but has no effect on males.  Keywords:  gender; civic participation; voluntarism; labor supply

Shelly Brown-Jeffy   The Race Gap in High School Reading Achievement:  Why School Racial Composition Still Matters   (p268-294)

Abstract: This study, a multilevel analysis of 4,065 students from 219 schools in the High School Effectiveness Study, examines the association between school racial composition and the Black-White achievement gap in reading achievement during a time in history when American schools began to resegregate and achievement differences between White and non-White students began to widen. Results indicate that the Black-White gap in reading achievement in schools with less than 10% Black, Hispanic, and/or Native American students enrolled is substantial, especially in comparison to schools with 25-54% Black, Hispanic, and/or Native American students (where the Black-White gap is relatively small and all students have higher average reading achievement). Racial integration is beneficial for Black student achievement, especially in the racially diverse suburban school with a mix of Black, Hispanic, Native American, White and Asian students that most approximates the racial mix of the United States.  Keywords:  racial differences; education; academic achievement; achievement gap; minority groups, race

Sabrina W. Tyuse and Julie Birkenmaier   Promoting Homeownership for the Poor:  Proceed with Caution   (p295-310)

Abstract: Several aspects of the financial marketplace are presently converging to promote low-income and minority homeownership in the United States. These include programs by the federal government and the mortgage lending industry, which allow lower income families to purchase homes. However, current lending patterns may adversely affect disadvantaged populations. This paper discusses various homeownership strategies that are designed to help families purchase and retain their home. It also explores the history of mortgage lending, the effects of credit history on homeownership, equity building, and subprime and predatory loan practices. Based on the findings, this paper summarizes the social implications and offers recommendations to improve homeownership policy. In addition, specific suggestions for educators and advocates, policy makers, and researchers are offered.  Keywords:  homeownership; race; credit; subprime and predatory lending; social welfare

Rodney U. Garrett   Effects of Mentoring on the Quality of the Doctoral Experience at Historically Black Colleges and Universities:  Results of Groundwork Investigation   (p311-327)

Abstract:  This study describes the effects of mentoring on the quality of the doctoral experiences in education at Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs). The study focused only on the 14 HBCUs that offer doctoral degrees in education. Twelve of the 14 eligible institutions agreed to participate in the study. Forty-seven doctoral students who were in their third year of study or close to completion participated in the study. These respondents completed a survey that was utilized in a national study of doctoral students at predominately white institutions and Ivy League institutions conducted by Golde and Dore in 2001. The researchers determined that mentoring had a positive effect on the quality of doctoral education offered at HBCUs.  Keywords:  Historically Black Colleges and Universities; doctoral students; minority colleges, minority students

Sandra L. Barnes   An Analysis of Black Church Usage of Black Liberation and Womanist Theologies:  Implications for Inclusivity   (p329-346)

Abstract: Black Liberation and Womanist theologies represent biblical interpretations used to educate, equip, and empower marginalized groups. Their emphasis in combating various forms of oppression positions them as potential exemplars for social action. This project examines whether contemporary Black churches employ Black Liberation and Womanist theologies and the church, clergy, and member profiles as well as congregational environments conducive to such sermonic references. Findings based on Faith Factor 2000 Project data suggest that congregational environment, rather than profile indicators, explain the tendency to reference such theologies. Furthermore, churches considered priestlier in stance are just as poised to posit such theologies as their prophetic counterparts. Findings inform current research regarding changes in Black Church theological emphasis and provide implications for increased inclusivity.  Keywords:  black church; inclusivity; liberation theology

Race, Gender and Class:  A Potpourri in Psychology; and Others

Volume 13, Number 1-2, 2006, ISSN 1082-8354

Guest Editors:  Thomas Hebert and Elliott Hammer

Thomas Hebert and Elliott Hammer   Introduction to Race, Gender, and Class:  A Potpourri in Psychology   (p4-6)

Yuki Aizawa and Mark A. Whatley   Gender, Shyness, and Individualism-Collectivism:  A Cross-Cultural Study   (p7-25)

Abstract: For the past two decades, many researchers have paid much attention to the diversity of cultures and suggested cultural syndromes may help explain cultural differences in social behavior. The purpose of this study was to investigate the construct of shyness in three different cultures. Sixty Japanese, 33 Chilean, and 53 American participants were asked to complete a measure of individualism-collectivism (Triandis, 1995) and shyness (Cheek & Buss, 1981). As hypothesized, the Japanese reported greater shyness than Chileans and Americans. Men and women in all the three cultures showed different attitudes and emotional expressions based on cultural differences between individualism and collectivism.  Keywords: culture; individualism; collectivism; shyness; social anxiety; gender

Alisha Ali   A Framework for Emancipatory inquiry in psychology:  Lessons from Feminist Methodology   (p26-35)

Abstract: Psychological science has been plagued by a disengagement from social issues including racism, sexual discrimination, and poverty. This disengagement is in part a consequence of dominant methodological approaches which are in many ways incompatible with the investigation of societal factors. This paper explores the need for an emancipatory methodological framework within psychology that can allow the discipline to actively respond to social problems while still retaining the ideals of scientific rigor. Drawing upon feminist models of methodology, a viable framework is proposed. The enactment of this framework is considered in light of certain challenges to the integration of socially relevant issues into mainstream psychological research.  Keywords: feminist methodology; psychological science; social change

Priscilla D. Allen and Katie Cherry   Race Relations in the Nursing Home Setting   (p36-45)  

Abstract: The increasing number of older adults in society and projected increases in the number of older persons for the future mark an important demographic trend. The number of frail or disabled elderly people who will require nursing home care is expected to increase significantly over the next few decades. Understanding the impact of gender and ethnicity on staff-client relationships in the nursing home setting is a critical challenge for social scientists. This paper examines caregiver and resident relationships in the nursing home where a growing immigrant, non-White staff, cares for the dominant White consumer population. The extant nursing home race relations literature is reviewed with a focus on historical and cultural disparities, utilization, and experiences between caregivers and residents. Implications for practice and directions for future research are considered.  Keywords: nursing home caregiving; race relations; long-term care 

Shanette M. Harris   Body Image Attitudes, Physical Attributes and Disturbed Eating among African American College Women   (p46-58)

Abstract: This research examined relationships among body image attitudes, physical qualities and eating variables for a sample of African American women. Eighty-seven voluntary participants completed a personal profile form, subscales of the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), the Body Cathexis Scale, and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI). Body attitude measures were consistently associated with body mass in a direction to suggest that heaviness or high weight levels produce body dissatisfaction and unfavorable fitness and appearance evaluations. Likewise, Bulimia, Drive for Thinness and Body Dissatisfaction eating disordered subscales were positively associated with body mass. Two canonical variates were extracted from the relationship between eating disorder correlates and body attitudes. These results show that variation exists among African American college women associated with differences in relationships among eating disturbances, physical attributes and body attitudes.  Keywords: Black women; African American women; African Americans; women; females; eating behavior; eating disorders; eating disturbances; eating dysfunctions; body; body attitudes; body image; body mass; body satisfaction; weight; appearance; fitness

Jason Reed   Gender Differences in Political Attitudes and Persuasion   (p59-69)

Abstract: This paper presents a theoretical discussion of whether men and women inherently possess different attitudes about political objects and issues. Drawing upon theories and empirical work from social, cognitive, and evolutionary psychology, a framework is presented to suggest that men and women should generally possess differing political attitudes due to both societal and personal factors. Specifically, Social Dominance Theory suggests that existing social ideologies will contribute to men and women developing differing political attitudes, and an associative network model of cognition developed by Judd and Krosnick (1989) suggests that individual levels of attitude strength or expertise with a political attitude object will contribute to different political attitudes for men and women. The paper then uses the dual-process persuasion theory of the Elaboration Likelihood Model to present a single framework for attitude change applicable to both men and women despite the likelihood of gender differences in political attitudes. Theoretical and practical implications of these frameworks are discussed.  Keywords: persuasion; political attitudes

Teresa R. Robbins   Changing Minds but not Politics:  The Influence of Intergroup Interactions on Racial Policy Attitudes about African Americans   (p70-86)

Abstract: This research used the intergroup anxiety model (Stephan & Stephan, 1985) as a framework to examine the relationship between two antecedents and two outcomes of intergroup anxiety. I predicted that among European American (EA) respondents, satisfaction with living in a neighborhood with a high proportion of African American (AA) residents (an indicator of positive prior interactions) and working together with predominantly AA neighbors to solve a common problem (an indicator of a cooperative reward structure) would be associated with external attributions about the disadvantaged social position of AA and with greater support for government aid to AAs. Consistent with expectations, secondary analyses of national election data revealed that increased neighborhood intergroup contact was associated with external attributions toward AAs among respondents who were satisfied with their neighborhood, and among respondents who had cooperated with neighbors. However, neither the quality nor the reward structure of prior interactions correlated with attitudes about government aid to AAs.  Keywords: intergroup anxiety; ethnic attitudes; political attitudes

Alecia M. Santuzzi and Janet B. Ruscher   Distancing from Incompetent In-Group Members:  Evidence for the Black Sheep Effect in Ethnicity and Nationality   (p87-95)

Abstract: The present study examined how White university students living in the United States evaluated student university applicants given differences in applicants' nationality, ethnicity, and competence. Consistent with the black sheep effect (Marques & Yzerbyt, 1988), ratings for an incompetent in-group applicant (i.e., White applicant living in the Unites States) were lower in comparison to ratings for other incompetent or competent applicants. These results demonstrated that BSE may be relevant to not only racial identity, but also other aspects of social identity (e.g., nationality). BSE seemed to be stronger when the "black sheep" was of both the same racial category and the same nationality as participants, compared to when only one of either race or nationality was the same or when both race and nationality were different from participants. Therefore, BSE might increase as the degree of overlap in individuals’ social identities increases.  Keywords: black sheep effect; social identity; racial identity; in-group evaluation

Sondra E. Solomon and Donald A. Saucier   Perceived Effectiveness of a Bias Awareness Program   (p96-107)

Abstract: An awareness program consisting of three event types (colloquia, workshops, and film sessions) was created to reduce bias on campus. Participants reported their perceptions of the effectiveness of the individuals who conducted events, their perceptions of the events as learning experiences, and their changes in thoughts, feelings, and behavioral intentions after attending events. Participants reported that all program event types’ speakers and facilitators were at least moderately effective, and each event type was at least moderately effective as a learning experience. Results indicated that workshops were especially effective and were more likely than colloquia or films to produce changes in thoughts, feelings, and intentions to behave differently.  Keywords: prejudice reduction; bias awareness; tolerance

Arthur A. Stukas, Jr.   Principled Stands Against Racism   (p108-123)

Abstract: A procedural paradigm was created to demonstrate a particular reaction to racism, the principled stand, defined as explicit disagreement accompanied by an abstract or moral principle. After watching a videotape about discrimination, White participants who scored low on the Modern Racism Scale (McConahay, Hardee, & Batts, 1981) discussed prejudice with a confederate in an unstructured format. The confederate delivered one of three racist scripts, revealing different motivations for his racism, or a neutral control script. Rates of principled stands and other verbal reactions were examined. Results demonstrated that women were more likely to take principled stands than men, although when they took them, men took stronger stands than women. Principled stands occurred frequently and were consistent as a response to differently motivated racism. Implications for research and society are discussed.  Keywords: prejudice; racism; social interaction; disagreement

DeMarquis Hayes, Michael Cunningham and Jacques Courseault   Race Related Barriers for African American Males Pursuing Higher Education:  Implications for Psychology   (p124-132)

Abstract: This manuscript draws attention to the gender gap between African American males and females in higher education. In doing so, a review of information regarding African American males from the early school years to college is discussed. Information is presented that highlights how race and gender specific issues affect the number of African American males pursuing advanced degrees that lead to careers in higher education. The manuscript examines barriers preventing African American males from pursuing advanced degrees and offers suggestions for improving participation of African American males in higher education generally and in psychology specifically.  Keywords: African American males; higher education; gender gap

Sherry B. Schnake, Daniel J. Beal, and Janet B. Rusher   Modern Racism and Intergroup Bias in Causal Explanation   (p133-143)

Abstract: Intergroup bias emerges in causal explanation, such that ingroup but not outgroup members often are credited for positive behaviors and forgiven for negative behavior. When two potential explanations for behavior appear, conversational conventions predict that individuals weight the later explanation most heavily in their judgments. Previous work on conversational conventions, however, finds that people follow conversational conventions when they best support intergroup bias. The present study investigated the extent to which individual differences in prejudice moderated this pattern. European American participants who were determined to be low or high in modern racism read about the behaviors of European American and African American actors. When mitigating external explanations for negative behaviors or disposition-crediting explanations for positive behaviors were provided last, individuals high in modern racism tended to rely upon conversational conventions only for European American actors. That is, high modern racists’ selective reliance upon conversational conventions forgave ingroup members for their faults, and tended to credit them for their virtues; consistent with intergroup bias, they did not extend this courtesy to outgroup members.  Keywords: modern racism; intergroup bias; attribution

George Ansalone   Tracking:  A Return to Jim Crow   (p144-153)   

Abstract: More than fifty years after the Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools are "inherently unequal"; equality of educational opportunity still remains an almost unattainable goal in American schooling. For many, this distressing problem is the direct result of the growing pervasiveness and popularity of educational tracking, the separation of students by ability and curricula. This article explores the historical roots of tracking and suggests that its evolution and continued presence in our society represents a veiled attempt and defective strategy for attaining separate but equal education in the schools. It underscores the research findings that call attention to the negative student outcomes in the area of affective and cognitive development for disadvantaged students in tracked classes. Finally, it concludes that the educational limitations of the Jim Crow Era including differential resource allocation and teacher expectations, a differentiated curriculum as well as the negative impact on student self-concept and career trajectory, are facilitated by the educational structure of tracking. Keywords: ability grouping; social inequality; tracking

Alma Thornton, Bernestine McGee, Sahasporn Paeratakul, Kirkland Mellad, Gina Eubanks, Betty Fomby, Jeff Gossett, and Kimberley Bardell   The Influence of Socio-Demographic Factors on Psycho-Social Beliefs   (p154-167)  

Abstract: This study examined four major psycho-social variables, health belief, social influence, health locus of control, and self efficacy in rural lower Mississippi Delta residents. Socio-demographic variables of race, education and income were used to measure differences in perception of attitudes of importance of others in shaping normative beliefs, placement of primary responsibility for health outcome (locus of control) and beliefs about staying healthy and preventing diseases. Two hundred sixty eight (268) Delta residents were systematically surveyed resulting in 249 usable interviews. Chi Square analysis was used to assess differences. Differences in health belief, locus of control, social influence and self-efficacy were found to vary by race, education, income and food assistance status. Significant differences were found between (1) race and food assistance status and health belief; (2) race and social influence; (3) race, food assistance status, education and health locus of control; and (4) race, food assistance status, income, education and self-efficacy.  Key words: self efficacy; locus of control; health belief; socioeconomic status

Jean Ait Belkhir   Introduction to Others   (p168-169)   

Kris Acheson   Black Shepherd, White Sheep:  A Phenomenological Study of a Southern Church    (p170-190)  

Abstract: Much recent literature has noted the invisibility of Whiteness and the normalization of White supremacy in the US. This body of work is often especially applicable to life in the rural Southern US. Recent critical literature suggests that interrogating examples of the disruption of normative Whiteness could offer powerful opportunities for social change. In the context of the White supremacist South, then, an important task is finding and examining instances where the everydayness of Whiteness is challenged, where people are made uncomfortable because the unspoken rules of race relations are broken. This essay explores an instance of radical disruption of the invisibility of Whiteness—a Black pastor of a predominantly White church in the rural South. Using phenomenological methods, I interrogate the phenomenon of a Black man pastoring White Southerners as that experience is described in a set of narratives written from various perspectives within the church (a church member, a church elder, and the pastor himself). Through a reduction and interpretation of themes in the narratives, I arrive at conclusions about the nature of the phenomenon and various ways of experiencing it in an attempt to find ways to combat personal and systemic racism.  Keywords: whiteness; racism; phenomenology; religion; lived experience; visible identity; South 

John Penny and Laurie Gaillard   Mentoring African American Women in Higher Education Administration   (p191-200) 

Abstract: This paper gives a brief overview of networking and the role that the mentor/mentee plays in it. It defines networking and mentor. Also included are the value of mentoring, the old boys system, characteristics of mentors, actions taken by mentors to ensure productive relationships, responsibilities of mentees, leadership skills developed and, African American women. An appeal is made to African American women/men in higher education administration who have succeeded to become mentors.  Keywords: mentor; mente; African American women; higher education administration; networking 

Ashraf Esmail and Jas M. Sullivan   African American College Males and Females:  A Look at Color Mating Preferences   (p201-220)

Abstract: This paper explores color-preference attitudes among African-American males and females in the areas of interpersonal attraction and mate selection. The hypothesis underlying the study is that, as lightness in skin color increases, so, too, the perception of attractiveness and the association of positive characteristics with light skin color. This research utilizes interviews to explore whether or not African-American males report a preference for light-skinned women and whether or not African-American females report a preference for light-skinned men. The findings indicate that African-American males choose marriage partners according to the skin color complexion of their father. However, in terms of women they find most attractive, they select according to the skin color complexion of their mother. Among African-American females, the findings indicate that while it is true that they chose males that were medium to dark skin complexion, other factors such as height, hair, lips, eyes, style of dress were more important that merely the color of one’s skin.  Keywords: African-American; interpersonal attraction; mate selection   

Alvin D. Mitchell   The Effects of the Marshall Hypothesis on Attitudes toward the Death Penalty   (p221-247)

Abstract: Previous research has partially supported the Marshall Hypothesis’ contention that most people in America support the death penalty because they are not knowledgeable of the debatable issues involved. These issues include retribution, morality, public opinion, deterrence, cost, irreversibility, and discrimination. Other topics include fear of crime and the media’s exacerbation of the crime problem. All of these issues and topics can influence attitudes toward the death penalty. If Americans knew the substance of these issues and topics, their attitudes may change in regard to the death penalty. In 2003, Governor Ryan of Illinois first issued a stay of execution, then a moratorium, and later a commutation of death sentences for all inmates on death row in the state of Illinois. In addition, he fully released other inmates who were found guilty and sentenced to death. Interestingly, however, Governor Ryan, a republican believed wholeheartedly in the death penalty. Governor Ryan’s attitude mirrors the contention of Justice Thurgood Marshall: If people are knowledgeable of the death penalty and its application, then support for the death penalty will wane. If Governor Ryan’s attitude changed toward the death penalty after Marshall’s effect, then it is possible that others will change their attitudes toward the death penalty. This study revisits the Marshall Hypothesis using students at a large, multicultural community college in the southern region of the United States.  Keywords: capital punishment; death penalty; Marshall Hypothesis   

Sudipta Das   Life in a Salad Bowl:  Marriage, Family Life, and Economic Choices in Asian-American Communities in the United States   (p248-272)   

Abstract: This study attempts to isolate its focus on marriage, family, and economic choices among the six largest Asian American groups: Chinese, Filipinos, Japanese, Asian Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese. Through available statistical data on the lifestyles of the first-generation Asian American immigrants and on that of their U.S.-raised or U. S. born children as well as from ethnic insight, the study attempts to show how patterns are changing in these particular areas from the past to the present. Marriage and family choices are becoming intertwined with choices of rapid economic advancement in some ethnic groups, which are electing to indulge in behavioral and structural assimilation with the host society for social stability and economic gain. In defining trends characteristically identified as "Asian American," this study also seeks to identify the practices within each ethnic group constituting this collective rubric.  Keywords: Asian; Asian-American; endogamy; paternalism; patriarchy; ethnic marriage; ethnic family life

Peter B. Anderson and William Sorensen   "Drinking more than Normal in order to Make it Easier to Have Sex with Someone":  A race, Gender, Class Analysis of College Students Living On and Off Campus   (p273-287) 

Abstract: In this study the authors focused on the question; how will "drinking more than normal" and subsequent sexual activities fluctuate by the intersections of race, gender, and class? In addition, we were interested in determining how safer sex practices would differ by the intersections of race, gender, and class and how the additional variable of place (living on or off-campus) would interact with the target variables. The results show that even though having sex is the common denominator between the two dependent variables, they represent two different mechanisms to achieve sex and are mediated by different factors. Drinking to have sex is mediated by the interactions of gender, class, race, and age. Having multiple sex partners is mediated primarily by place, and by the intersection of class and age. In our study lower class Black males reported the fewest times drinking in order to have sex and the lowest number of sex partners in the past year compared to other groups. In ancillary analysis, men were more likely than women to drink to have sex with a casual partner and women were more likely than men to drink to have sex with a steady partner regardless of, and controlling for race, class, and age.  Keywords: sex; alcohol; risk; race; gender; class; place  

Volume 12

Race, Gender, and Class in Public policy, Planning, and Administration 

Volume 12, Number 3-4, 2005, ISSN 1082-8354

Guest Editor:  George Amedee  

George Amedee   Introduction to Race, Gender, and Class in Public Policy, Planning, and Administration   (p4-8)

Joan Marshall Wesley, Matthew Dalbey, and William M. Harris   Urban Segregation in the Deep South:  Race, Education, and Planning Ethics in Jackson, Mississippi   (p11-30)

Abstract: Segregation has retrenched itself in Jackson, Mississippi, the largest city in the largest metropolitan area in the State. As a social phenomenon, segregation has survived through tradition, lingering attitudes, public policy in economic and job development, educational decision-making, and land-use changes such as suburbanization and sprawl. This paper explores the historical roots and current status of segregation in the public schools, the city and the metro area. Coming from a posture informed by ethics in planning and public policy, the authors examine efforts by a local grass roots organization and an affirmative education policy, both aimed at reducing segregation in the public schools. Programmatic and creative remedies are offered as possible ways to dismantle racial segregation.  Keywords: planning ethics; planning policy

Rita Henry-Brown and Nycole Campbell-Lewis   Examining Barriers to Career Advancement Among Females of Color in the Federal Career Service   (p31-46)

Abstract: The present study focuses on the glass ceiling phenomenon as it affects the advancement of females of color in the federal career service. Three theories are offered to explain the barriers to career advancement: human capital, sociopsychological, and systemic. Mentoring, job commitment, and geographical mobility variables are discussed as potential barriers to career advancement. Strategies for advancing females of color through the pipeline to upper management levels, policy implications and directions for future research are discussed. Data for this analysis were obtained from the U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board. The total sample consists of 8,400 randomly selected federal employees in the General Schedule/General Management grades 9 through 11 and the Senior Executive Service.  Keywords: glass ceiling; career advancement

James C. Harvey   Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity for Blacks in Higher Education and the university of Michigan Cases   (p47-55)

Abstract: This paper assesses the status of Affirmative Action in higher education as an equal opportunity tool for bringing African Americans into the mainstream of America. The key cases leading up to the Michigan Case are presented and the significance of these cases in their attempt to achieve diversity. An assessment of the current and future status of Affirmative Action in Higher Education is presented in light of the Michigan case and the reaction to its decision. The subsequent political and legal fallout from the case is discussed with a final determination of the current and future strength of Affirmative Action in higher education.  Keywords: Affirmative action; diversity; plaintiffs; quota system

Tazinski P. Lee   The Myth and Reality of Affirmative Action:  A Study Using the Perceptions of Female Police   (p56-72)

Abstract: In spite of the passage of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972, Title VII provisions and various executive orders prohibiting discrimination in human resource practices, female police officers remain heavily concentrated in the lowest level positions of many police departments in the United States. To date, the only solution for improving the employment status of women in policing has been affirmative action. While affirmative action plans/initiatives have lead to some improvements in female officers’ statuses, additional progress could be made if the plans were strongly enforced by all police departments. This work explores police officers’ perceptions of the impact that affirmative action plans/initiatives have had on the recruitment, hiring, promotion, and retention of female officers. Using convenience sampling, 109 currently employed sworn male and female police officers from the three largest police departments in a rural area of the South were surveyed. Quantitative and qualitative data analysis techniques were used to analyze the findings. The data revealed that the number of female police officers in the departments studied was small. The data suggests that there is a lack of enforcement of affirmative action plans/initiatives by each department.  Keywords: Affirmative Action; quotas; glass ceiling; gender discrimination; representative bureaucracy; small town

Ruby Cooper Lipscomb   Child Support Policy Reformation:   A Policy Analysis   (p73-84)

Abtract: This article addresses the quality of the current child support policy because it is vitally important to the nation’s future. A significant number of children is living apart from at least one parent, and therefore is eligible for child support (Children’s Defense Fund, 2003). Based on a review of the literature, an analysis of our nation’s child support system is presented. In addition a proposal for reform is recommended.  Keywords: Child Support; social policy; single- parent families child welfare   

George Amedee  Closing the Transportation Divide:  Linking TANF and Transportation   (p86-106)

Abstract: This paper examines the status of the transportation related problems associated with TANF’s success. The paper draws on findings from previous studies on journey to work and welfare to work guidelines and strategies being employed to address the transportation challenges of TANF recipients. Data collected from a survey of 1,688 TANF recipients as part of the Mississippi TANF Implementation Study, the experiences of Washington State’s Department of Transportation On-the-Job Training and Supportive Services and information collected on funding commitments to this program nationwide are also presented in a discussion of the link between transportation and jobs. A large majority of TANF recipients are largely young minority females with children who lack timely and dependable transportation from central city and rural areas where 2/3 of them reside to suburban areas that are becoming the primary focal point for the growth in employment nationwide. To adequately address the needs of TANF workers, the study found that both rural and urban area services must address transportation problems associated with trip chaining, temporal mismatch, and information gap issues. The study also found that states have responded with a wide range of creative and innovative programs to address job access and reverse commute needs. In spite of proliferation of new transportation strategies, the most serious problems facing TANF recipients that was identified in this study is finding and maintaining decent paying jobs. The ability to maintain work was also identified as a problem. The study recommends the expansion of nontraditional jobs for females in heavy construction and technology jobs under the DOT OJT Program and expansion of funding to ease barriers in transitioning from welfare to work in heavy construction areas. Other recommendations include an increase in funds for job access and reverse commute programs, building day care facilities near employment locations in the suburbs, and opening up housing and public transportation opportunities for low income families in suburban communities.  Keywords: TANF-Temporary Assistance for Needy Families; TEA21- Transportation Equity Act for the 21^st Century; OJT- On the Job Training

Cynthia P. Honoré-Collins   The Impact of African American Incarceration on African American Children in the Child Welfare System   (p107-118)

Abstract: Over the past decade, much has been written and discussed on the disproportionate number of African Americans in United States social systems. This paper highlights the issue of the increasing numbers of incarcerated African Americans, and the impact that it has on out-of-home placement for African American children. This paper presents literature that explores and describes the history of this trend. Discussion centers on statistics and trends on African American incarceration and out-of-home placement of children with incarcerated parents. Questions for future research are presented and strategies of advocacy, empowerment, and transformation are suggested to address the disproportionate representation of African Americans in the criminal justice and child welfare systems. This paper also discusses the implications of this problem for social workers, policy makers, and social scientist.  Keywords: African Americans; prison; incarceration; child welfare; out-of-home placement; foster care

Joyce Buckner-Brown and Augustine O. Agho   An Examination of U.S. Federally Funded Television Public Service Announcements (PSAs) in Changing AIDS Risk Behaviors in African American Populations   (p120-138)

Abstract: During the period of January 1996 through June 1999, African Americans accounted for 50% of all AIDS diagnoses and 57% of all diagnoses, Using the Transtheoretical Model of Behavioral Change as a conceptual framework, this study examined English language Public Service Announcements (PSAs) disseminated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Institute on Drug Abuse to determine whether televised broadcasts aimed at general and African American audiences followed a logical sequence from awareness to motivation, skill building, and maintenance. Findings indicated that PSAs provided factual information, but failed to move beyond factual information to presenting messages that promoted, motivated, and reinforced behavior change. There were no statistically significant differences in the variables examined between the PSAs targeting African Americans and those targeting the general population.  Keywords: HIV/AIDS Televised Public Service Announcements; Transtheoretical Model; minority health; health promotion; African Americans; Stages of Behavior Change

Pamela Leong   The African-American Church and the Politics of Difference:  Creating an Oppositional Religious Culture in the Context of HIV/AIDS   (p139-154)

Abstract: This ethnography examines how an African-American congregation in Los Angeles has created an oppositional religious culture in the context of the AIDS pandemic. The congregation is able to address the unique needs of its marginalized members because it engages in a variety of tactics that appear to challenge the status quo. It destabilizes and subverts gender and sexual categories, fosters open dialogue and the disclosure of secrets, affirms and legitimizes differences, reinterprets theology, and openly challenges and resists systems of oppression. As a separatist religious organization, the congregation offers alternative and oppositional religious and social culture, providing familiar and empowering sites for the unique experiences of individuals who are low-income, black, GLBT, and HIV-positive.  Keywords: African-American church; black church; religion; HIV/AIDS; congregational culture; sexuality; GLBT; gender

Carmen M. White   Tourism as an Ethnic Landscape and the Landscape of Ethnic Tourism:  The Case of Fiji   (p155-175)

Abstract: The contemporary organization and content of tourism in Fiji has colonial roots as deep as the oppositional identities of this nation’s two numerically dominant populations—indigenous Fijians and Fiji Indians—configured in national discourse as "comparative reference groups." This article will show how the tourism industry in Fiji has become a site for a type of ethnic tourism where these essentialized identities are expressed both discursively and structurally. The article also provides a historical context for the advent of mass tourism in Fiji, outlining how Fiji tourism emerged in the context of a racially segmented labor market rationalized by a wider colonial order. Colonially constructed notions of racial difference would not only legitimate a hierarchically structured ethnic division of labor in tourism, but would be accommodated, amplified and focalized in tourism discourse. While industry campaigns channel a tourist gaze upon Fijians as the embodiment of noble savagery and redeemed primitivity, the physical presence but discursive erasure of Indians in tourism constitutes its own narrative. Meanwhile, the structural dominance and visual exclusion of the local European elite barely differentiates them from the overseas enterprises that dominate the industry. This article also explores such by-products of Fiji tourism’s colonial origins as Fijian preclusion from local consumption of tourism.  Keywords: ethnic tourism, Fiji; Fijians; noble savagery; South Pacific; tourism discourse

Race, Gender and Class and Poverty:  Causes and Consequences

Volume 12, Number 2, 2005, ISSN 1082-8354

Guest Editor:  Francis O. Adeola

Francis O. Adeola   Introduction. Poverty:  Causes and Consequences   (p3-9)

Katherine A Luther, Deseriee A. Kennedy, and Terri Combs-Orme   Intertwining of Poverty, Gender, and Race:  A Critical Analysis of Welfare News Coverage from 1993-2000   (p10-33)

Abstract: Over the years, welfare has become highly intertwined with ideological beliefs involving gender, race, and poverty. As the nature of welfare transformed to include non-white recipients, the perception of welfare recipients as single "worthy white widows" was replaced by the "lazy African-American breeders." This study examined how television news may have appropriated this negative image in its coverage of the changes in the U.S. welfare system that took place during the 1990s. News stories presented by the major U.S. television networks from 1993 to 2000 were examined. The analysis showed that news stories tended to depict the typical welfare recipient as being female and black, and often depicted the recipient as responsible for her welfare status.  Keywords: welfare, legislation, news, framing.

Karen Christopher   The Poverty Line Forty Years Later:  Alternative Poverty Measures and Women’s Lives   (p34-52)

Abstract: The official U.S. poverty line is the standard measure of economic disadvantage in the U.S. Yet with its multiple shortcomings, this measure underestimates economic hardship. This article uses a multiracial feminist framework to apply alternative poverty measures to women, people of color, and women of color. Compared to the official U.S. poverty measure, alternative poverty measures almost always produce heightened measures of economic disadvantage for these groups. While the official U.S. poverty rate more severely underestimates poverty among White and Latina women, Black women— particularly Black single mothers—live the most deeply in poverty. The article ends with a discussion of policy implications.  Keywords: poverty, gender, race/ethnicity, multiracial feminism.

Francis O. Adeola   Racial and Class Divergence in Public Attitudes and Perceptions about Poverty in USA:  An Empirical Study   (p53-80)

Abstract: This article focuses on differences between Blacks and Whites in attitudes, perceptions, and opinions concerning the roots of poverty in the United States. First, the extent of poverty, its trend, and demographic distributions are presented. Next, individual, cultural, genetic, human capital, and structural theories of poverty are discussed. Hypotheses from these theories are formulated and tested using multiple nationally representative data-sets in tandem with empirical information from the U.S. Census Bureau. The results indicate there is a growing trend in poverty in the United States, especially since 2000, with racial minorities, children, female headed households, and foreign-born segments of the population disproportionately represented among the poor. Poverty remains concentrated in the South than any other region of the country. While Americans in general perceived government spending on the poor as too little, they placed the blame of poverty on the poor themselves. In a multivariate discriminant analysis (MDA) performed, significant differences were found between Blacks and Whites in attributions of poverty with the former identifying structural level failures and the latter indicating personal and psycho-social deficiencies as the roots of poverty. The only hypothesis not supported in the analysis is the IQ hypothesis. A holistic perspective blending both the individual and structural variables are recommended for future research.  Keywords: poverty, PRWORA, human capital, social Darwinism, The Bell Curve, IQ, discriminant analysis, public opinions, race and ethnicity.

Richard C. Caputo   The GED as a Signifier of Later Life Health and Economic Well-Being   (p81-103)

Abstract: Guided by human capital, socialization, and institutionalization theories, this study examined later life health and economic well-being of General Education Development (GED) certificate recipients. Relying on study sample (N=4,848) obtained from the Health and Retirement Study, Early 2002 release, GED recipients were found to have significantly worse later life outcomes than high school graduates on measures of cognition, depression, physical illnesses, and household income and to have significantly better later life outcomes than high school dropouts on measures as depression, independent activities of daily living, and household income. Findings suggest that GED recipients, who are more likely to be poor than conventional high school graduates though less likely than non-credentialed dropouts, should not be lumped together with them and that potential and subsequent GED recipients and high school dropouts should be given special consideration to prevent deleterious outcomes in later life.  Keywords: educational outcomes, economic well-being, GED, health, high school dropouts.

Shirley Rombough and Diane Keithly   Native Americans, The Feudal System, and the Protestant Work Ethic:  A Unique View of the Reservation   (p104-120)

Abstract: Native Americans experience high rates of poverty and lower levels of education and income in comparison to white Americans and other minority groups. This paper traces the history of Native Americans in relation to federal policies which disrupted native culture and created reservations. A review of literature suggests some surprising results. Recent findings point to a growing interest in Native American culture and a growing population on reservations. Reservation life appears to be attractive but perhaps for reasons that are less than apparent. The authors note similarities between the cultural disruption wrought by the rise of the Protestant work ethic and capitalism in feudal Europe and the experiences of Native Americans in relation to larger American culture. Parallels between traditional feudal society and reservation life today are made for the purpose of explaining what continues to keep people living on reservations.  Keywords: Native American, feudal system, capitalism, reservation, minority groups, traditional society

Lynn Fujiwara   Mothers without Citizenship:  Asian Immigrants and Refugees Negotiate Poverty and Hunger in Post-Welfare Reform   (p121-141)

Abstract: This article examines the impact of food stamp cuts for Asian immigrants and refugees through the Personal Responsibility Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Drawing from field work conducted from 1996-1998 in the Bay Area of Northern California in Asian immigrant community organizations allowed for a more nuanced examination of Asian immigrant families negotiating poverty. I argue that the targeting of non-citizens as undeserving of public benefits not only jeopardized human rights to immigrants, it reflects the existing and persistent devaluation of immigrant families who experienced higher levels of hunger and food insecurity due to welfare reform. This focused analysis of the loss of food stamps to immigrant families highlights the intersecting forces of race, gender, class, and citizenship formed through social policy that reinforces the persistence of poverty within immigrant communities. Keywords: immigration, welfare reform, poverty, women, citizenship, Asian immigrants and refugees.

Emily R. Cabaniss and Jill E. Fuller   Ethnicity, Race and Poverty Among Single Women:  Causes and Complications   (p142-162)

Abstract: Poverty is an enduring problem in the United States that remains at the center of many research agendas. While much attention has focused on identifying segments of the population most at risk for experiencing periods of economic deprivation, such as single women, less attention has been devoted to examining the reasons behind greatly differing poverty rates across groups. Among poor women in the United States, some racial and ethnic minority groups suffer considerably more hardship and longer durations of poverty than other groups. Our work strives to synthesize theoretical perspectives toward a more complete explanation for why unmarried women of color are prone to being poor. It suggests a way of conceptualizing the unique impacts of cultural pressures and structural constraints that become amplified as they filter through individual circumstances and compound the effects of poverty for some groups of women. Considered in this work are: culture of poverty and assimilation theories, structural and feminist perspectives, as well as popular and situational explanations for poverty.  Keywords: ethnicity, race, poverty, gender.

Ruby C. Lipscomb   The Challenges of African American Grandparents Raising Their Grandchildren with Implications for Research and Program Development   (p163-177)

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to highlight the increasing and important role that grandparents play in raising their grandchildren without the children’s parents present. African American grandparents are disproportionately affected by this trend. The theoretical underpinnings in this article suggest that the African American family is a social system embedded and interwoven with the wider society or macro system. Grandparent caregivers and their grandchildren are viewed as subsystems. The social factors and forces in the wider society that lead to grandparents assuming the primary caregiver role are presented in order to enhance the understanding of their unique challenges. Social service support systems are discussed as well as recommendations for future program development and research.  Keywords: African American, caregiver, gender, grandparents, grandchildren, class, race.

Paul C. Mocombe   Where Did Freire Go Wrong?  Pedagogy in Globalization:  The Grenadian Example   (p178-199)

Abstract: Recent debates in education theory have centered on the poststructural emphasis of the decentered (heterogeneous) subject within the cultural structure of schools. Emphasizing the dialogue, recent pedagogical practices have avowed, between constructed identities within schools, theorists of this poststructural persuasion attempt to demonstrate the resistance posed by constructed identities to integration into the capitalist structural logic of schools. This essay, on the contrary, argues that Paulo Freire’s dialogical pedagogy, as contemporarily practiced in American post-industrial workplaces and schools, speaks to the continual role of education as an instrument that is used to facilitate integration, rather than as a liberating force against the partiality of its capitalist ideological structure. So where did Freire, and by my association poststructural theorists, go wrong? This essay, through a world-systems approach, offers a rereading of Freire’s emphasis on dialogue, as practiced in the American and Grenadian contexts, which not only refutes it in favor of the antidialogical model or the "Banking system," but demonstrates, contrarily to the poststructural emphasis, how dialogical pedagogy is utilized, within existing configuration of post-industrial capitalist power, to foster normalization (i.e., homogenization) amongst diverse "cultural" identities (race, ethnicity, gender, and sexuality), rather than to liberate them.  Keywords: pedagogy, Paulo Freire, globalization, world-system.

Quantitative Approaches to Race, Gender, and Class Analysis

Volume 12, Number 1, 2005, ISSN 1082-8354

Guest Editor:  Bart Landry

Bart Landry   Introduction   (p4-10)

Kei M. Nomaguchi   Are There Race and Gender Differences in the Effect of Marital Dissolution on Depression?   (p11-30)

Abstract: In this article, I examine whether there are race and gender differences in the effect of marital dissolution on depression, using panel data of a nationally representative sample of black and white Americans. To examine group differences, two procedures are used, including (1) OLS regression models with interaction terms on the full sample, and (2) t-tests of differences in coefficients for the effect of marital dissolution on depression from separate subgroup regression models. Results suggest that regardless of race, women are more likely than men to increase depression upon becoming separated/divorced, and there are no significant race differences within each gender, and there is no interaction between gender and race. Although black-white differences in gender relations in marriage led to speculations that blacks may differ from whites in gender difference in psychological responses to marital dissolution, results suggest that regardless of race, women are more vulnerable than men to marital dissolution.  Keywords: depression, gender, interactions, marital dissolution, race, gender, class, RGC perspective

Bradford Booth and David R. Segal   Bringing in the Soldiers Back In:  Implications of Inclusion of Military Personnel for Labor Market Research on Race, Class, and Gender   (p34-57) 

Abstract: This paper takes issue with the common methodological practice of excluding military personnel from populations being analyzed on the basis that such persons represent members of an "institutionalized population", not subject to the choices and constraints found within the labor market. This practice represents an ‘institutionalization’ of another sort—the perpetuation of a norm of research design that has its roots in an era when armed forces personnel were conscripted, but that is no longer realistic. We propose an alternative conceptualization, arguing that, because the military represents the nation’s largest employer of African American men, the inclusion of service members in labor market research—particularly on racial inequality—helps our understanding of this area of inquiry. Data from the 1990 U.S. Census are used to test the hypothesis that individual military service is associated with reduced earnings inequality among black and white men employed full time. Findings indicate that, controlling for key individual characteristics including education and potential work experience, racial earnings inequality among men is significantly lower within the military. This suggests that by excluding military personnel from research designs, labor market scholars may be neglecting a factor that bears on our understanding of racial inequality. Military effects on racial inequality among women workers are also examined.  Keywords: race, gender, class, intersectionality, labor markets, inequality, social stratification, military personnel, military sociology

Erika Laine Austin   Women's STD Prevention and Detection practices:  The Specificity of Social Location   (p59-81)

Abstract: Limited research has focused on women’s prevention and detection of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), due to the emphasis on the prevention of unwanted pregnancies. Existing public health research on women’s sexual health practices treats race/ethnicity and social class as separate explanatory factors, with a focus on the practices of minority and impoverished women. This work uses an intersection approach to problematize the traditional use of race/ethnicity and social class in public health research by creating multiplicative interaction terms to represent the unique social locations created by the intersection of the systems of patriarchy, racism, and capitalist exploitation. Logistic regression models reveal several significant interaction terms, suggesting that race/ethnicity and social class interact in meaningful ways to predict women’s sexual health practices.  Keywords: race, gender, class, intersection theory, women’s health, sexually transmitted diseases

Brett A. Magill   Generalized Expectancies for Control among High-School Students at the Intersection of Race, Class, and Gender   (p82-96)

Abstract: The present study examines the effects of race, class, and gender on perceptions of control among high-school students from the perspective of intersection theory. Using a subset of data from the 1979 cohort of the National Longitudinal Study of Youth (N = 4818) and a four-item measure of internality-externality, attributions of control were examined as they vary by race, class, and gender. Interaction effects were also examined and age was used as a control. Statistically significant but small main effects were found for race, class, and gender with blacks, working-class individuals, and women demonstrating greater externality than whites, individuals of higher class situation, and men. Statistically significant age effects were also noted while no interaction effects were found. It is concluded that racism, patriarchy, and capitalism as systems of power create inequalities in the lives of individuals that diminish the degree to which individuals see themselves in control of their experiences.  Keywords: locus of control, internality, externality, race, gender, class, intersection theory

Jennifer Castro and Bart Landry   Race, Gender, and Class Variation in the Effect of Neighborhood Violence on Adolescent Use of Violence   (p97-120)

Abstract: Over the past few decades, countless youth have been exposed to chronic neighborhood violence, yet few studies have examined the effect of this exposure on adolescents’ own assaultive behavior. Whether and how exposure to neighborhood violence increases the likelihood of adolescent violence has importance to criminological theory and policy. Furthermore, there is reason to believe that the strength of this effect may vary by the race, gender, and class of the adolescent. To date, no known quantitative analyses have examined the effect of neighborhood violence on adolescent use of violence across intersections of race, gender, and class. By conceptualizing neighborhood violence as a source of negative and noxious strain, the present study integrates elements of general strain theory with an intersectionality approach. Using multivariate regressions, we analyze the effect of neighborhood violence on adolescent use of violence across intersections of race, gender, and class—while controlling for other predictors of adolescent violence. We conduct our study using self-report data from 3,214 juveniles interviewed as part of the 1995 National Survey of Adolescents (Kilpatrick & Saunders, 1995). Results provide support for intersectional variation in the effects of experiencing and witnessing neighborhood violence on adolescent use of violence.  Keywords: race, gender, class, intersectionality, neighborhood violence, general strain theory

Bart Landry   Notes on Teaching Race, Gender, and Class Methodology to Undergraduates   (p121-124)

Juan Battle, Wanda Alderman-Swain, and Alia R. Tyner   Using an Intersectionality Model to Explain the Educational Outcomes for Black Students in a Variety of Family Configurations   (p126-151)

Abstract: Using a nationally representative sample from the National Educational Longitudinal Study (NELS) and a theoretical model of intersectionality, this research examines the longitudinal effects that a variety of single-parent households have on the educational outcomes of Black males and females. We found that: (1) in general, parental configuration in the 8^th grade has no impact on educational achievement in the 12^th grade or two years after high school; (2) in general, economic capital is more important in predicting educational outcomes than parental configuration; (3) Black male students in divorced households or one-parent households in the 8^th grade have better outcomes in 12^th grade than do their male counterparts in married or two-parent households; and (4) race, gender, and class are simultaneously intersecting categories in the family experiences and educational achievement processes of Black students.  Keywords: education, family, black, intersectionality, gender, race, class, NELS, students

Danielle Taana Smith   Developing Entrepreneurship among African Americans:  The Effects of Urban Residence   (p152-168)

Abstract: This study examines the impact of urban residence on the likehood of self-employment for African Americans and Whites. Geographic region and urban residence are used as variables that reflect the social and economic development of the community, as more stable and organized communities are expected top offer social networks that are more effective for goal achievement to individuals in those communities. Demographic variable are education, labor force experience, gender, age, marital status and the presence of children in the household. The aim of the study is to aid in the understanding of how African Americans can use entrepreneurship as a means of achieving social and economic parity with main-stream Americans. Data analyzed are from the 1993 through 2000 Current Population Surveys: Annual Individual Level Files (CPS). The research questions are: How does urban residence affect the likehood of self-employment? Do differences exist based on race?  Keywords: African American, Entrepreneurship, Urban Residency

Gail Wallace   American Sociological Association Race, Gender and Class Section Survey Report   (p170-175)

Volume 11

Social Change, criminology, Women of Color in the Academy, Reparations for African Americans, Critical Whiteness Studies, Workfare

Volume 11, Number 4, 2004, ISSN 1082-8354

Jean Ait Belkhir and Christiane Charlemaine   Introduction   (p4-7)

Abigail A. Fuller   What Difference Does Difference Make?  Women, Race-